Fig.1

Geographic distributions and population genetic structure of the sika deer. A Sampling locations in this study. A total of 81 wild sika deer representing populations from China, Russia, and Japan and 71 domesticated sika deer from farms in Jilin and Heilongjiang Provinces (Northeast China, NEC) were sampled. Triangles and circles were used to distinguish between mainland and island populations, and two domestic populations were labelled with black edges. The black squares denoted non-native populations: the Kazakhstan population was introduced from a nature reserve in the Far East of Russia (RU1) in the 1930s, whereas the population in the Liugongdao National Forest Park, Shandong province, was introduced from Taiwan on April 16, 2011. B NJ tree constructed using p-distances of all 152 individuals. C ADMIXTURE results obtained using all 152 sika deer with K = 2, 3 and 8. D Principal component analysis plot of all 152 samples used in this study. E Phylogenetic tree based on mitochondrial genome haplotypes. F Median-joining network map based on Y-chromosome SNP haplotypes